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First images from Great Pyramid's chamber of secrets

The settling of a couple major and long lived questions involving the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt are only a tiny fraction of what remains to be answered in the latest robotic foray into the tomb of one of the greatest pharaohs Egypt has ever known. The Pharaoh Khufu is buried in the Great Pyramid along with the King’s Chief Wife and Queen Meritates.

 robot named Djedi, after the magician with whom Khufu consulted before the building of the great Pyramid, has brought back spectacular images of the interior of what was at one time a charter member of the Seven Wonders of the World.

It’s a toss up for the ages whether or not the newly discovered images from a tiny chamber in the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt are that of religious significance or ancient graffiti tags left by an overzealous worker. What is not up for debate is the relevance of such a find in the annals of early man. The first images being sent back from Djedi have not been seen for 4,500 years and have opened up more theories on the exact nature of the grandest pyramid ever created.

The recent images from inside the tomb have answered a debate on the notion concerning alien involvement from the heavenly bodies. In 1993, a similar but less advanced robot crawled 63 metres up the tunnel in the southern wall and discovered what appeared to be a small stone door. What was exciting about these particular doors was that they were set with metal pins. Metal is not a known part of the Great Pyramid and the discovery ignited speculation that the pins were door handles, keys, or even some out of this world parts of a power supply constructed by extraterrestrials. 

The Great Pyramid is thought to have been built as a tomb for the pharaoh Khufu, and is the last structure standing of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The Great Pyramid contains three main chambers: the King's Chamber, the Queen's Chamber, and the Grand Gallery. The pyramid in itself is of modern and technological significance. The ability for the ancient Egyptians to construct such a magnificent and structurally sound structure with the tools that were available in that time is simply astonishing. 

Additionally, the robot images have shed new light on what was only an estimation by Egyptian researchers. Two airshafts have been found that lead to the King’s Chamber to the exterior of the tomb. Egypt's Minister of State for Antiquities Affairs Zahi Hawass had described these airshafts, tunnels, and the doors that are attached as the “last great mystery of the pyramid."

The metal pins that are an exciting ongoing storyline of the King’s Chambers and the Great Pyramid are now believed to be of human origination as the newest photographs have captured ornate rounded ends. The mystery continues with more images being sent up daily by Djedi the robot.

TFOT has covered new robotic technologies that are related to underground photography and robotic excavation in "The Avenue Urban Robot" and "Robotic Snakes."

The Great Pyramid's Chamber of Secrets

It's 756 feet long on each side, 450 feet high and is composed of 2,300,000 blocks of stone, each averaging 2 1/2 tons in weight. Despite the makers' limited surveying tools, no side is more than 8 inches different in length than another, and the whole structure is perfectly oriented to the points of the compass. Even in the 19th century, it was the tallest building in the world and, at the age of 4,500 years, it is the only one of the famous "Seven Wonders of the Ancient World" that still stands. Even today it remains the most massive building on Earth. It is the Great Pyramid of Khufu, at Giza, Egypt.

Some of the earliest history of the Pyramid comes from a Greek the historian and traveler Herodotus of Halicanassus. He visited Egypt around 450 BC and included a description of the Great Pyramid in a history book he wrote. Herodotus was told by his Egyptian guides that it took twenty years for a force of 100,000 oppressed slaves to build the pyramid (with another 10 years to build a stone causeway that connected it to a temple in the valley below). Stones were lifted into position by the use of immense machines. The purpose of the structure, according to Herodotus's sources, was as a tomb for the Pharaoh Khufu (whom the Greeks referred to as Cheops).

Herodotus, a Greek from the democratic city of Athens, probably found the idea of a single man employing such staggering wealth and effort on his tomb an incredible act of egotism. He reported that even thousands of years later the Egyptians still hated Khufu for the burden he had placed on the people and could hardly bring themselves to speak his name.

However, Khufu's contemporary Egyptian subjects may have seen the great pyramid in a different light. To them the pharaoh was not just a king, but a living god who linked their lives with those of the immortals. The pyramid, as an eternal tomb for the pharaoh's body, may have offered the people reassurance of his continuing influence with the gods. The pyramid wasn't just a symbol of regal power, but a visible link between earth and heaven.

Indeed, many of the stories Herodotus relates to us are probably false. Engineers calculate that fewer men and less years were needed than Herodotus suggests to build the structure. It also seems unlikely that slaves or complicated machines were needed for the pyramid's construction. It isn't surprising that the Greek historian got it wrong, however. By the time he visited the site, the structure was already 20 centuries old, and much of the truth about it was shrouded in the mists of history.

Certainly the idea that it was a tomb for a Pharaoh, though, seems in line with Egyptian practices. For many centuries before and after the construction of the Great Pyramid, the Egyptians had interned their dead Pharaoh-Kings, whom they believed to be living Gods, in intricate tombs. Some were above-ground structures, like the pyramid, others were cut in the rock underground. All the dead leaders were outfitted with the many things it was believed they would need in the afterlife to come. Many were buried with untold treasures.

The Pyramid Complex

If we were to visit the location of the great pyramid when it was just finished, it would look very different than we see it today. Originally, the pyramid itself was encased in highly polished white limestone with a smooth surface which is now gone. At the very top of the structure would have been a capstone, which is also now missing. Some sources suggest that the capstone might have been sheathed in gold. Between the white limestone and the golden cap the pyramid would have made an impressive sight shining in the bright Egyptian sun.

Around the base of the great pyramid were four smaller pyramids, three of which still stand today. On the east side of the pyramid stood a now missing Funerary temple. Running down the hill into the valley was a stone causeway, which linked the Funerary temple with a temple in the valley. Around the pyramid were six boat shaped pits that may have contained the hulls of vessels that belonged to the pharaoh. Parts of one of these have been found and reconstructed into a 147 foot long boat that today is enclosed next to the pyramid in its own museum.

The other two large pyramids at Giza, the Pyramid of Khafre (Khufu's son) and the Pyramid of Menkaure had not yet been built, so the Khufu's pyramid and its associated structures stood alone, though surrounded by the dwelling places and the graves of many of those that helped construct it.

Opening the Pyramid

Even in ancient times, thieves breaking into the sacred burial places were a major problem and Egyptian architects became adept at designing solutions to this problem. They built passageways that could be plugged with impassable granite blocks; created secret, hidden rooms and made decoy chambers. No matter how clever the designers became, however, robbers seemed to be even smarter and with almost no exceptions, each of the great tombs of the Egyptian Kings was plundered.

In 820 A.D. the Arab Caliph Abdullah Al Manum decided to make his own search for the treasure of Khufu. He gathered a gang of workmen and, unable to find the location of a reputed secret door, started burrowing into the side of the monument. After a hundred feet of hard going they were about to give up when they heard a heavy thud echo through the interior of the pyramid. Digging in the direction of the sound, they soon came upon a passageway that descended into the heart of the structure. On the floor lay a large block that had fallen from the ceiling, apparently causing the noise they had heard. Back at the beginning of the corridor they found the secret hinged door to the outside they had missed.

Working their way down the passage they soon found themselves deep in the natural stone below the pyramid. The corridor stopped descending and went horizontal for about 50 feet, then ended in a blank wall. A pit extended downward from there for about 30 feet, but it was empty. When the workmen examined the fallen block they noticed a large granite plug above it. Cutting through the softer stone around it they found another passageway that extended up into the heart of the pyramid. As they followed this corridor upward, they found several more granite blocks closing off the tunnel. In each case they cut around them by burrowing through the softer limestone of the walls. Finally, they found themselves in a low, horizontal passage that led to a small, square, empty room. This became known as the "Queen's Chamber," though it seems unlikely that it ever served that function.

Back at the junction of the ascending and descending passageways, the workers noticed an open space in the ceiling. Climbing up they found themselves in a high-roofed, ascending passageway. This became known as the "Grand Gallery." At the top of the gallery was a low, horizontal passage that led to a large room, some 34 feet long, 17 feet wide, and 19 feet high. It became known as the "King's Chamber." In the center was a huge granite sarcophagus without a lid. Otherwise the room was completely empty.

The Missing Treasure

The Arabs, as if in revenge for the missing treasure, stripped the pyramid of its fine white limestone casing and used it for building in Cairo. They even attempted to disassemble the great pyramid itself, but after removing the top 30 feet of stone, they gave up on this impossible task.

So what happened to the treasure of King Khufu? Conventional wisdom says that, like so many other royal tombs, the pyramid was the victim of robbers in ancient times. If we believe the accounts of Manum's men, though, the granite plugs that blocked the passageways were still in place when they entered the tomb. How did the thieves get in and out?

In 1638 an English mathematician, John Greaves, visited the pyramid. He discovered a narrow shaft, hidden in the wall that connected the Grand Gallery with the descending passage. Both ends were tightly sealed and the bottom was blocked with debris. Some archaeologists have suggested this route was used by the last of the Pharaoh's men to exit the tomb after the granite plugs had been put in place and by the thieves to get inside. Given the small size of the passageway and the amount of debris it seems unlikely that the massive amount of treasure, including the huge missing sarcophagus lid, could have been removed this way, however.

 

 Construction

Scientists have long argued about how this massive structure was built, but the most likely theory seems to be that the Egyptians built a huge ramp that allowed them to drag the blocks into position. Because a single straight ramp (as seen in the recent movie 10,000B.C.) would have to be over a half mile long to reach the top and would need to contain as much material as the pyramid itself, engineers have suggested that the ramp was in the shape of a spiral running around the outside of the pyramid. Alternately the Egyptians may have combined a straight ramp that ran part way up the pyramid with a spiral ramp to the very top levels. Blocks were probably dragged up the ramp by a team of men and put into their final position through the use of levers (For more information on the construction of the Great Pyramid, see our page How to Build a Pyramid).

French architect Jean-Pierre Houdin advanced the theory that a spiral ramp was used on the inside of the pyramid to move the stone blocks. According to Houdin a straight external ramp was used to get materials to the 140 foot level. From there workers dragged the stones through a set of gently rising tunnels just inside the outer walls. The last tunnel would exit on the monument's top. A 1986 microgravity survey of the pyramid discovered a peculiar anomaly: a less-dense structure in the form of a spiral within the pyramid that may turn out to be what is left of Houdin's tunnels.

A project management group that studied the problem of building the Great Pyramid estimated that the project, using material and methods available at the time, might have required less than ten years to complete: Two or three years site preparation, five years of actual construction and two years to remove the ramps and put on the finishing touches. This could have been done with an average work force of less than 14,000 laborers and a peak force of 40,000. By examining the ruins of dwellings and workshops in the area, archeologists have estimated between 4,000 and 5,000 of these men were full-time workers committed to the project through most of the construction.

Egyptian records indicate that the laborers, while being drafted against their will, were actually well cared for by ancient standards. Regulations have been found covering the maximum amount of work allowed per day, the wages received and holidays each worker was entitled to. Also, by scheduling most of the work to be done during annual flood periods, the Pharaoh could get a lot done without impacting the normal Egyptian economy.

Was the Pyramid a Tomb?

Some have suggested that the pyramid was never meant as a tomb, but as an astronomical observatory. The Roman author Proclus, in fact, states that before the pyramid was completed it did serve in this function. We can't put too much weight on Proclus words, though, remembering that when he advanced his theory the pyramid was already over 2000 years old.

Richard Proctor, an astronomer, did observe that the descending passage could have

 

been used to observe the transits of certain stars. He also suggested that the grand gallery, when open at the top during construction, could have been used for mapping the sky.

Many strange (and some silly) theories have arisen over the years to explain the pyramid and its passageways. Most archaeologists, however, accept the theory that the great pyramid was just the largest of a tradition of tombs used for the Pharaohs of Egypt.

So what happened to Khufu's mummy and treasure? Nobody knows. Extensive explorations have found no other chambers or passageways. Still one must wonder if, perhaps in this one case, the King and his architects outsmarted both the ancient thieves and modern archaeologists and that somewhere in, or below, the last wonder of the ancient world, rests Khufu and his sacred gold.

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SEXUALITY

Sexuality in ancient Egypt was open, untainted by guilt. Sex was an important part of life - from birth to death and rebirth. Singles and married couples made love. The gods themselves were earthy enough to copulate. The Egyptians even believed in sex in the afterlife. Sex was not taboo... Even the Egyptian religion was filled with tales of adultery, incest, homosexuality and masturbation... with hints of necrophillia! Masculinity and femininity itself were strongly linked with the ability to conceive and bear children...

MARRIAGE

To the ancient Egyptians, the most attractive women tended to be the fertile ones. A woman who had children was seen to be more fortunate than ones without. Taking after Isis, the mother goddess of Horus, Egyptian women strove to be intelligent, wise, mystical and mothers. Where her twin sister Nephthys was barren, Isis was fertile.

In the Egyptian community, men had to prove their masculinity by fathering children, while the women had to be able to bear these sons and daughters. Being a mother meant being able to keep her marriage secure and to gain a better position in society.

But an Egyptian family was not just a status symbol - the Egyptians loved their children and were not afraid to show it. But there were some advice to parents, written by scribes:

Do not prefer one of your children above the others; after all, you never know which one of them will be kind to you.

Adultery in Egypt was wrong. Women got the worst punishment for adultery - a man might just be forced into a divorce, but a woman could conceivably be killed for that crime. In the Tale of Two Brothers, the adulterous wife was found out, murdered and her body was thrown to the dogs.

Unmarried women, on the other hand, seem to be free to choose partners as they so desire, and enjoy their love life to its fullest.

Prostitutes advertised themselves through their clothing and make up. Some prostitutes wore blue faience beaded fish-net dresses, some of which is kept in the Weingreen Museum of Biblical Archaeology in Dublin. They painted their lips red, and tattooed themselves on the breasts or thighs and even went around totally nude.

CONTRACEPTION

The Egyptians had their own ways and means of getting around the fact that sex produced children. They had both contraceptives and abortions, mostly these were prescriptions that were filled with unpleasant ingredients such as crocodile dung. Here is one of the nicer ones:

Prescription to make a woman cease to become pregnant for one, two or three years: Grind together finely a measure of acacia dates with some honey. Moisten seed-wool with the mixture and insert it in the vagina.

-- Ebers Medical Papyrus

INCEST

From the close family relationships in Egyptian mythology and the fact that Egyptians seemed to have no taboo against incest, many have concluded that incest was rife in ancient Egypt.

There were probably some brother and sister marriages, but more likely than not, the siblings in question would have been half-brothers and half-sisters. The problem arises from the limited Egyptian terms of kinship, which are very confusing. A 'father' could refer to the actual father, the grandfather or male ancestors, while 'mother' could be the same, but for the females of the family. 'Sister' could mean a lover, a wife, a mistress or concubine, niece or aunt!

The royal family, on the other hand, did have more incestuous marriages. The royal blood ran through the females, not the males. To become pharaoh, a man had to marry a royal princess... which would be his sister or half-sister.

The prevalence of brother-sister marriages within the New Kingdom royal family, a custom in obvious contrast to contemporary non-royal marriage patters, appears to have been an attempt to reinforce the links between the royal family and the gods who themselves frequently indulged in brother-sister unions.

Mummification

The earliest ancient Egyptians buried their dead in small pits in the desert. The heat and dryness of the sand dehydrated the bodies quickly, creating lifelike and natural 'mummies'.

 Later, the ancient Egyptians began burying their dead in coffins to protect them from wild animals in the desert. However, they realized that bodies placed in coffins decayed when they were not exposed to the hot, dry sand of the desert.

Over many centuries, the ancient Egyptians developed a method of preserving bodies so they would remain lifelike. The process included embalming the bodies and wrapping them in strips of linen. Today we call this process mummification. 

How bodies were mummified?

An important man has died and his body needs to be prepared for burial.

The process of mummification has two stages. First, the embalming of the body. Then, the wrapping and burial of the body.

Embalming the body

First, his body is taken to the tent known as 'ibu' or the 'place of purification'. There the embalmers wash his body with good-smelling palm wine and rinse it with water from the Nile.

One of the embalmer's men makes a cut in the left side of the body and removes many of the internal organs. It is important to remove these because they are the first part of the body to decompose.

The liver, lungs, stomach and intestines are washed and packed in natron which will dry them out. The heart is not taken out of the body because it is the centre of intelligence and feeling and the man will need it in the afterlife.

A long hook is used to smash the brain and pull it out through the nose.

The body is now covered and stuffed with natron which will dry it out. All of the fluids, and rags from the embalming process will be saved and buried along with the body.

After forty days the body is washed again with water from the Nile. Then it is covered with oils to help the skin stay elastic.

The dehydrated internal organs are wrapped in linen and returned to the body. The body is stuffed with dry materials such as sawdust, leaves and linen so that it looks lifelike.  

Finally the body is covered again with good-smelling oils. It is now ready to be wrapped in linen.

In the past, when the internal organs were removed from a body they were placed in hollow canopic jars.

Over many years the embalming practices changed and embalmers began returning internal organs to bodies after the organs had been dried in natron. However, solid wood or stone canopic jars were still buried with the mummy to symbolically protect the internal organs.

Wrapping the mummy

First the head and neck are wrapped with strips of fine linen. Then the fingers and the toes are individually wrapped. 

The arms and legs are wrapped separately. Between the layers of wrapping, the embalmers place amulets to protect the body in its journey through the underworld.

A priest reads spells out loud while the mummy is being wrapped. These spells will help ward off evil spirits and help the deceased make the journey to the afterlife. 

The arms and legs are tied together. A papyrus scroll with spells from the Book of the Dead is placed between the wrapped hands. 

More linen strips are wrapped around the body. At every layer, the bandages are painted with liquid resin that helps to glue the bandages together. 

A cloth is wrapped around the body and a picture of the god Osiris is painted on its surface.

Finally, a large cloth is wrapped around the entire mummy. It is attached with strips of linen that run from the top to the bottom of the mummy, and around its middle.

A board of painted wood is placed on top of the mummy before the mummy is lowered into its coffin. The first coffin is then put inside a second coffin. 

The funeral is held for the deceased and his family mourns his death. 

A ritual called the 'Opening of the Mouth' is performed, allowing the deceased to eat and drink again.

Finally, the body and its coffins are placed inside a large stone sarcophagus in the tomb. Furniture, clothing, valuable objects, food and drink are arranged in the tomb for the deceased.

Now his body is ready for its journey through the underworld. There his heart will be judged by his good deeds on earth. If his heart is found to be pure he will be sent to live for all eternity in the beautiful 'Field of Reeds'.

Where to stay in Egypt

Hotels 

Egypt boasts some beautiful resorts set in landscaped gardens across the country. All the top resorts, at Sharm el-Sheik, Hurghada and Luxor, offer lavish accommodation for less than top-dollar prices. Many include international restaurants, spas and infinity pools, and they are a good place to watch belly dancing or other cultural entertainment which cater especially for tourists. Most can arrange diving and snorkelling, horse- and camel-riding trips, and tours of the desert or to archaeological sites.

Top-end hotel accommodation in Egypt surprisingly represents the best value for money. In Cairo, there are some spectacular five-star hotels run by international chains, many of them on the banks of the Nile. In Alexandria, old colonial hotels on the corniche are convenient and charming.

All cities and resorts offer a choice of mid-range hotels that offer business facilities and help with onward connections. Most require reservations several months in advance, particularly in the winter months and during major Islamic holidays.

Hotels are graded 1-5 stars, although visitors will find that the standards of the lower range are somewhat inferior to their counterparts in Europe and the USA.

Bed and breakfast 

All the main towns have smaller, cheap guesthouses, many of which are family-run and offer the chance to integrate more readily with Egyptian people. Standards vary considerably from simple but clean, to the very basic where bringing your own linen is advisable. Most guesthouses can offer tours and help with transport arrangements although it’s still best to shop around to compare prices and services. In Cairo, inexpensive accommodation is concentrated in Downtown, above office buildings on and around Sharia Talaat Harb and some cheaper options in Islamic Cairo. All tend to be hot in summer as they rarely have air conditioning.

Camping 

There are several places in the country to enjoy a night under canvas, particularly at budget-style resorts along the Sinai coast and during trips organised trips to the Sinai interior or the Western Desert. Egypt is not such a good place, however, for ad hoc camping and caravanning as there are many security restrictions in place to protect the country's tourist industry. There are a few official campsites that tourist offices in Egypt can advise about.

Other accommodation 

There are 11 youth hostels affiliated to the Egyptian Youth Hostels Association, located mainly in large towns, on the coast and in popular tourist regions. They mainly cater to local residents but they are used by Western backpackers too.

Shopping in Egypt

Egypt is a wonderland of shopping opportunities. Of course, there are the famous bazaars such as the Khan el-Khalili, but then there are also thousands of unusual stores scattered about the country, and especially in Cairo, though some products are better purchased perhaps from the locale from which they are produced, such as alabaster in Luxor. However, Cairo provides a huge variety of everything from antiques to fine clothing and especially jewelry.

In some shops, you must haggle while in others the price will be set. Which type of store provides the best possible deals depends both on the shop itself and the haggling ability of the buyer an seller. Frequently though some of the best deals at the best consistent quality is found in stores with fixed prices. For example, one might haggle over a mother-of-pearl box in the Khan el-Khalili and wind up paying a fairly low price but for an inferior products, while in a fixed price shop, one might end up paying more, but for a far superior mother-of-pearl box.

The purpose for this section is to provide Tour Egypt readers with information both on how to shop in Egypt, as well as to enlighten them on how to tell what makes various products better or worse from the standpoint of quality. Of course, for those not traveling to Egypt, our Virtual Khan el-Khalili, Tour Egypt's online shop provides many quality products found in Egypt at reasonable prices.

What to wear when visiting Egypt

Egypt, being a predominantly Muslim country, is naturally conservative (not like the Gulf States or Saudi Arabia) but the average people are careful in what they wear. The dress code in Egypt for women is considered conservative by western standards and it is respectful to obey this code.

For men it is not really an issue -- normal trousers and shirt or T-shirt are fine -- but in Cairo it would not be acceptable to wear short shorts or a tank tops/sleeveless tops.  In the resorts like Sharm El Sheik, Hurghada, Sinai, etc. -- shorts are fine and it is very open and flexible. This also applies to ladies for the beach areas, but going into the market area in Hurghada, for example you may be more comfortable in trousers. Generally for men in Cairo or any city that is not on the sea side, remain with trousers (at tourist sites long loose shorts) or jeans and T-shirt , as even in Cairo, local people do not feel comfortable seeing a man in shorts. In Sea Side areas it's ok to walk in shorts, but once you enter a local restuarant or market, it's better to be more covered.

So, the main subject here is what women should wear.  Adopting the conservative dress code will hopefully deflect unwanted attention from the Egyptian men which for most women is desirable.  Basic clothes could be loose linen/cotton trousers or a below knee skirt and sleeved blouse.  (If you're planning to ride a camel, a skirt is not a good idea.)  Tight clothes and low necks are to be avoided. Also aviod transperant blouses or pants as they are also not welcomed and will draw attention and even comments, especially from young men.

Going out to dinner, especially in a nice restaurant, it is advisable to wear smart clothes and having  shawl would be a good idea to cover bare shoulders.  On cruise boats also it is nice to have something smart to wear in the evening.

Comfortable strong shoes are a must (that could be sneakers/trainers or good leather shoes). Sandals can be worn, but you will suffer from dust /sand and the streets of Cairo are not clean; there are often muddy puddles, too, so in general having closed shoes is the better option.  This is not the time to make a fashion statement.  It will be difficult to see sights in heels of any sort, as the desert is sandy.

When entering a mosque as a tourist it is better to observe the conservative dress code as above, and in some of the major mosques (Al-Azhar for example) women will be required to cover up and this is provided by the mosque.  Some mosques (i.e., Ibn Touloun) have canvas shoe covers (not easy to walk with), so it is possible to decline, but Ibn Touloun mosque is not in use for daily services, so it is not always very clean, and using the shoe covers can be good for the areas that have no carpets like the central court.  For other mosques like Mohamed Ali or any other, just remove your shoes and walk in socks. Any  Muslim entering a mosque for prayer will simply remove his/her shoes, so why should a tourist be different? The best option for most people when entering a mosque is to leave the shoes with the mosque guard, who usually has a desk at the entrance and a place to store shoes.  He will keep an eye on them.  When leaving you can give him 1 egyptian pound or even half a pound, or nothing.  Usually locals give half a pound just because he is a poor man, but it is not obligatory.  Some of these guards are greedy when they see a tourist, and they ask you for money but if you do not want to pay just leave, he can't force you to pay anything and he doesnt have right to not even to mention certain amount of money to be paid.

In winter it can get cold at night in Egypt; often it is warmer in the street than it is inside buildings, so it is a good idea to bring a casual jacket or shawl.  The buildings are designed to be cool and it is good to be aware of this. Here iit s very rare to have central heating or central air conditioning; this is only in big hotels and other high class places.

So to "fit in," the above is highly recommended - this applies to any of the major cities in Egypt, excluding the Red Sea resorts, which are much more easy going, but while traveling by road between destinations (police check points, petrol stations, etc.) covering up more would be wise.  Also when being in Upper Egypt, it is required to be more covered and for women  and also to not  wear extreme makeup, as this will only attract more unwanted attention.

Some tourists wear what they like (tank tops, sun dresses, short shorts, low necks, see through blouses) - without any consideration for the local culture or customs.  This can be done of course, and they then imagine that this is ok - and strongly recommend it to others, but in fact having done it without direct comment or  trouble still does not make it the right choice and they are oblivious to the very bad impression they have left behind.